Was the Ramayana actually set in and around today’s Afghanistan?

 An examination of a book by physicist Rajesh Kochhar debunks the notion that the events of the epic took place in modern-day India.

History is said to be the original discipline in the faculties today known as humanities. This is owing to the fact that every discipline in knowledge discourse has a history – even abstract disciplines like mathematics or astronomy – and every piece of history has a geophysical contextuality.

Ever since Herodotus (484 BC - 425 BC, Greek-occupied Turkey) started the discipline, he recorded events during the reign of four Persian kings and chronicled life and society in their times. These were times of conflict between Greece and Persia and had a geographical contextuality.

Herodotus also speaks of “India”, where he saw the Himalayan marmot bathing in gold dust. Much later, deconstructing his text led to the conclusion that the great father of historical praxis must have passed through the North West Frontier province and reached the base of Hindu Kush.

This posed a question, which Herodotus did not ask himself: if he had indeed travelled to “India”, which “India” was this? For that matter, if he was “Greek”, which “Greece” did he live in? Similarly. if Ram of the epic poem Ramayana was an “Indian”, where was this “India” situated?

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The so-called Ram Setu
A ship that wishes to sail from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal has to pass through the Indian Ocean to the south of Sri Lanka. The voyage would have been 30 hours shorter if it could have travelled along the Gulf Of Mannar, which separates India and Sri Lanka, but this isn’t possible. For there are thousands of small submerged rocks beneath its surface, stretching like a bridge across 47 km between the two countries. As a result, the sea is between one and 30 metre deep here, which isn’t favourable for sailing.

The British government of colonised India as well the government of independent India had often planned to dredge the channel to make it suitable for sailing; but the plans have remained elusive for various reasons. At present, for instance, Hindutva followers believe that this is the bridge built by an army of monkeys, as described in the Ramayana, which Ram and Lakshaman crossed to conquer Sri Lanka.

Their demand is that, far from dredging, let the Archaeological Survey of India declare this bridge a national monument. Not that the colonisers were any less fundamentalist. In 1804 a certain British cartographer named the structure Adam’s Bridge – according to him this was the bridge described in the Bible which Adam crossed to scale a mountain peak, where he meditated for 1,000 years while standing on one leg.

Even before this, we have seen Marco Polo describe the structure as a bridge, as did Al-Biruni in the book he wrote in 1030 CE. In other words, it has long been held that this row of rocks beneath the surface of the water is a bridge.

Not exactly a bridge
According to geologists this structure is actually a limestone shoal, the outcome of natural processes. Between 300 and 30 million years ago, a portion of the Indian subcontinent is believed to have broken off because of continental drift to form the island of Sri Lanka. The debris that this fragment of land left behind at birth in the water as it drifted away led to the creation of this so-called bridge.

It may have jutted out of the water at some point in history, in which case it might have been used as a bridge. But there is considerable doubt whether the users belonged to the age of the Ramayana. This is because the inhabitants of Sri Lanka went directly from the Stone Age to the Iron Age; the use of copper was not very prevalent here. On the other hand, the Ramayana is a tale from an advanced Copper Age – an epic in verse from a period two or three thousand years before the Iron Age.

Where was Ramayana set?
Let us drop the preamble and get to the point now. If the Lanka mentioned in the Ramayana was not the Sri Lanka of today, where was it located? Where did Ram belong, for that matter? Wherever he may have lived, he was certainly not an inhabitant of what is the Ganges valley today, or of “Ramjanmabhoomi” Ayodhya. For, civilised man did not live in the forest-infested Ganges valley before the Iron Age, since there were no axes with which to clear the vegetation before iron was discovered. There were no swords either, which proves that the Ramayana, unlike the Mahabaharata, is not an epic of the Ganges valley. It makes no mention of swords – the bow and arrow are the primary weapons in it.

The primary objective of this essay is to point to the geographical location of the Ramayana. It is not the writer who has arrived at the answer, nor an Indologist like Max Mueller or even a historian or archaeologist. The person in question is Rajesh Kochhar, a physicist with an inclination for history, who has broken through the traditional techniques of history in his work The Vedic People – Their History and Geography.

How the Ramayana is different from the Mahabharata
The primary difficulty of discussing the ancient history of India lies in the necessity of first demolishing several well-established inaccuracies, such as the Aryan Invasion Theory, for instance. Spun by white men and broadcast by colonial historians, this old wives’ tale is still taught in schools and colleges, with half of any written work – measured in terms of paper, ink and effort - being expended on it. We shall not entertain it. We will only examine whatever can be determined through the social and geographical pointers available in the Ramayana.

There are two other fundamental differences between the Ramayana and the Mahabharata – in the rivers and in the divine pantheon. In the Mahabharata the Ganga and the Yamuna are almost ubiquitous, but they’re completely missing from the Ramayana. In the Mahabharata we see the powerful presence of the Hindu trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwar – but they’re absent from the Ramayana. We do not find these two rivers and these three gods together in the Rig Veda.

However, the rivers and gods that are to be found in the Rig Veda are also to be found in the Ramayana – the rivers Saraswati and Sarayu, and the original trinity of Agni, Varun and Pavan. From this it is easy to surmise that the Ramayana is a Rig Vedic epic. Which period was this? It would not be correct to estimate this using our current calendar: it would probably not be possible either. An approximation can be made from the sequence of events.

The somras clue
Vedic nomads travelled from the Eastern Europe to Bactria (present day Afghanistan). From here they went to Persia (today’s Iran). During their migration to Persia there was probably a battle for power amongst the gods, which led to the birth of the Avestan religion. As a result, Indra, the king of gods, became an inferior figure in the Avesta, while Yama, the god of death, turned into the finest of the gods. Worshipping Agni is a prominent practice within the Parsi community, but Hindus do not worship this ancient god. This indicates that the Rig Vedic age predated Persia. Kochhar has provided clues to whether this was the Afghan branch of the Vedic journey.

The first such clue that Kochhar alludes to is the Vedic drink somras. It was so important in ancient Vedic life that an entire mandala or chapter of the Rig Veda has been devoted to it. The importance of soma is evident in the Avestan Zend scripture – it is referred to as haoma in Persia. It is seen that the closer the Vedic nomads get to the Indian peninsula, the more they seek continuously new alternatives to the soma plant; that was how important somras was.

But the original soma plant was to be found only in what is modern day Afghanistan and Persia or Iran. In 1951 the German historian Karl Friedrich Geldner proved that the ephedra plant was what was described as soma in the Rig Veda. Ephedrin or somras is not alcohol – this intoxicant is an alkaloid. Kochhar’s investigations led to the discovery of four varieties of ephedra, found in Afghanistan, Iran, the northern Himalayas, and the Hindu Kush.

What we learn from summer solstice
There are 49 cosmic hymns in the Rig and the Yajur Vedas whose meanings have not been explained. But one particular hymn from Vedanga Jyotish informs us that the longest day of the year, or summer solstice, comprised 18 periods of daylight and 12 of night. Day and night are of equal length on the Equator; in the higher latitudes, summer days are longer than nights.

The latitude at which the proportion of daylight and darkness is 3:2 is 34 degrees North. It is worth noting that the cities to be found around this latitude today are Herat and Kabul in Afghanistan. In other words, the place and time of the composition of the Vedanga Jyotish is the same as that of Vedic Afghanistan and Iran. This second piece of evidence offered by Rajesh Kochhar further strengthens the perception of the location and time of the Rig Veda.

In search of the rivers
Kochhar has deconstructed the Rig Veda in search of the Saraswati and the Sarayu, the two rivers also mentioned in the Ramayana. Here too our current history has come in the way.

There is a tiny river named the Sarayu in Uttar Pradesh, which flows into the Ghaghara, which in turn merges with the Ganga. Many people consider the rainwater-fed Saraswati in the Aravallis, flowing along the Ghaggar (not to be confused with the Ghaghara) basin the mythical Saraswati. On viewing the scans of North-Western India made by the Russian Landsat satellite between 1972 and ’79, it is natural to assume that the Ghaggar was a wide river. It flows into the Rann of Kutch.

The scan reveals the basin of a dried up older river, which is up to 8 km broad in some places. It was this that led to the hasty conclusion of this basin’s belonging to the original Saraswati.

From Neil Roberts’s The Holocene it is clear that the basin of this river widened to the north of the Rann of Kutch because of the accelerated movement of a glacier during the previous Ice Age. But deconstructing the Rig Veda doesn’t suggest any of this. The Saraswati has been referred to as non-perennial towards the end of the Veda. The original stream of the Ghaggar enters India from present-day Pakistan, drying up in the Thar desert. Kochhar believes this is the non-perennial Saraswati.

However, the Saraswati of the Rig Veda is extremely powerful, grinding rocks with sheer force. Its roar subsumes all other sounds. And the Sarayu of the Rig Veda is immensely wide and deep, the mother river. None of these descriptions matches the actual rivers in present-day India with those names.

Hymn No. 5 | 53 | 9 of the Rig Veda says, “May the Rasa, Krumu, Anitabh, Kuva or Sindhu not be able to stop you; let the deep Sarayu not be an obstacle.” The order of the rivers clearly moves from east to west. So the Sarayu undoubtedly flows to the west of the Indus.

Kochhar believes it is the 650-km river known as the Hari-Rud in Afghanistan, whose source is in the Hindu Kush mountains. It flows past the city of Herat and then for 100 km along the Iran-Afghanistan border before disappearing in the Karakom desert of Central Asia.

In the Avesta we find the Saraswati as the Harahaiti – the similarity in sound is noticeable – which enters Iran along the combined basin of the river Arghandar on the Afghan-Iran border and the river Helmand. According to Kochhar, it is this Helmand that is the Vedic Saraswati river.

The source of the Helmand is in the Koh-i-Baba mountain range. Flowing for 1,300 miles through the heart of Afghanistan, the Vedic Saraswati joins the Vedic Drijadbati or Arghandar. The Avesta identifies this wide river as the Hetumanta (or, in varations, as Setumanta). In Iran the Saraswati is named the Harahaiti, which flows into the inland lake Hamun-e-Sabari in the Saistan area of northern Iran.

The conclusion
The political map of the ancient world, of the Copper Age, provides an extraordinary realisation. The kingdoms of the two main political powers – the Persians and the Greeks – all lie between and around the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. None of these is a coastal civilisation, however.

This raises a question. What did ancient man refer to as a sea? The Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, and the Campian Sea are all saltwater lakes, and not seas in the way we understand them today. This make us wonder: perhaps the Lanka of the Ramayana was an island in the Hamun-e-Sabri.

The one thing that’s obvious: wherever it was that Ram and Lakshman went from Afghanistan, it could not have been to present-day Sri Lanka, for that would have meant crossing the Indian peninsula. And since Ravana, the lord of Lanka, was also partial to somras, it is unlikely that he went very far from the land of soma after abducting Sita.

Although it is not possible to prove archaeologically, there is considerable reason to assume that the lineage of Dasarath (and of Ram), the Ikshvakus, were from western Afghanistan. For the Puranas say that King Kubalasa slayed a demon on the shore of the Sabari. Vishwamitra received his second birth where the Saraswati met the sea. And Valmiki discovered Sita on the shore of the Sarayu. This is why there is little room for doubt that today’s Hamun-e-Sabri is the sea mentioned in the Ramayana, one of the islands in which was the kingdom ruled by Ravana, lord of the rakshases.

The focus of attention for those studying the lost history of India is the contentious issue raised by Hindutva historians, who have repeatedly asserted that western historians have been unable to identify the roots of ancient India. We find these assertions in the writings of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, as well as in those of certain lesser-known right-wing historians. It is surprising how easily conclusions unsupported by the array of Vedic texts can be arrived at because of mindless adherence to a popular brand of politics.

The rock formation between India and Sri Lanka could well be preserved, but not as Ram Setu or Adam’s Bridge. Let it be protected as a geological feature. For no matter how far one looks, no relationship is evident between this Lanka and the Lanka of the Ramayana.

(Source: Scroll)

The Silurian Hypothesis

When I was eleven, we lived in an English Tudor on Bluff Road in Glencoe, Illinois. One day, three strange men (two young, one old) knocked on the door. Their last name was Frank. They said they’d lived in this house before us, not for weeks but decades. For twenty years, this had been their house. They’d grown up here. Though I knew the house was old, it never occurred to me until then that someone else had lived in these rooms, that even my own room was not entirely my own. The youngest of the men, whose room would become mine, showed me the place on a brick wall hidden by ivy where he’d carved his name. “Bobby Frank, 1972.” It had been there all along. And I never even knew it.

That is the condition of the human race: we have woken to life with no idea how we got here, where that is or what happened before. Nor do we think much about it. Not because we are incurious, but because we do not know how much we don’t know.

What is a conspiracy?

It’s a truth that’s been kept from us. It can be a secret but it can also be the answer to a question we’ve not yet asked.

Modern humans have been around for about 200,000 years, but life has existed on this planet for 3.5 billion. That leaves 3,495,888,000 pre-human years unaccounted for—more than enough time for the rise and fall of not one but several pre-human industrial civilizations. Same screen, different show. 

Same field, different team. An alien race with alien technology, alien vehicles, alien folklore, and alien fears, beneath the familiar sky. There’d be no evidence of such bygone civilizations, built objects and industry lasting no more than a few hundred thousand years. After a few million, with plate tectonics at work, what is on the surface, including the earth itself, will be at the bottom of the sea and the bottom will have become the mountain peaks. The oldest place on the earth’s surface—a stretch of Israel’s Negev Desert—is just over a million years old, nothing on a geological clock.

The result of this is one of my favorite conspiracy theories, though it’s not a conspiracy in the conventional sense, a conspiracy usually being a secret kept by a nefarious elite. In this case, the secret, which belongs to the earth itself, has been kept from all of humanity, which believes it has done the only real thinking and the only real building on this planet, as it once believed the earth was at the center of the universe.

Called the Silurian Hypothesis, the theory was written in 2018 by Gavin Schmidt, a climate modeler at NASA’s Goddard Institute, and Adam Frank, an astrophysicist at the University of Rochester. Schmidt had been studying distant planets for hints of climate change, “hyperthermals,” the sort of quick temperature rises that might indicate the moment a civilization industrialized. 

It would suggest the presence of a species advanced enough to turn on the lights. Such a jump, perhaps resulting from a release of carbon, might be the only evidence that any race, including our own, will leave behind. Not the pyramids, not the skyscrapers, not Styrofoam, not Shakespeare—in the end, we will be known only by a change in the rock that marked the start of the Anthropocene.

It was logical for Schmidt and Frank to turn their attention from the upper to the under, from the cosmos to our own earth. Why look for alien life there when we might find it here, removed not by miles but years. There was indeed a mysterious jump in surface heat; 55 million years ago, global temperatures rose from 9 to 14 degrees Fahrenheit. Called the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, it left the same sort of geological evidence that will be left by our current carbon binge. 

There may have been other jumps, but we wouldn’t know it, as the geologic record only goes back so far. (We live in a compactor, where all things are crushed, recycled, and returned as new.) A meteor could’ve caused the Thermal Maximum, or it could’ve been the eruption of a monster volcano, the sort that presently smolders beneath the Atlantic. Or it could have been caused by the awakening of an ancient civilization, which rose like we rose, then fell as we will. That could be the fate of all advanced species, a rise and fall that flows as naturally as the change of seasons. Such a universe is ironic, continually creating characters whose technology brings on the very end they’re trying to avoid.

When Schmidt and Frank searched, they found a single forerunner to their idea of deep time. It came not from science, but from science fiction. At this level of conjecture, there’s little difference. It was an episode of Dr. Who, in which the time traveler visits an ancient species of advanced, long-extinct lizard people who’d achieved technological mastery 450 million years before modern man. The lizards were called Silurians, hence the Silurian Hypotheses.

It’s not really a new idea. Ancient mystical texts hint at earlier creation, the life that preceded the Garden, prequels to Genesis. These incarnations are not reported in the Bible because they are none of your goddamn business, but the evidence is everywhere. Some students of conspiracy believe there was a time when lizard people shared the earth with modern men, the older race dying as the younger emerged from the forest. T

he last of the lizards were worshipped as gods; these were the deities of ancient India and Greece. The technology—weapons and machines—created miracles. You can see the lizard kings in carvings from Mesopotamia, the oldest historical records, where humans bow before reptile men. You find them again in the Torah, where they appear as Nephilim, the so-called watchers—“The Nephilim were on the earth in those days and also afterward when the sons of God went to the daughters of humans and had children by them,” according to Genesis, “they were the heroes of old, men of renown”—which no priest, minister, or rabbi can properly explain. Just ask a clergyman and see for yourself. (I asked my rabbi.) There is some weird shit in the Bible.

According to a kabbalah-besotted friend, this world is God’s seventh creation, which explains dinosaur bones and other fossils. “The evidence is everywhere,” he told me one night. “They can say a meteor wiped out the past, but what is a meteor? God.” Some believe there are still Silurians walking the earth, holdovers who share their technology with a hidden elite—possibly Freemasons, possibly Jews. Some pseudoscientists speak of an atomic blast that took place in India 10,000 years ago. It might’ve been a natural phenomenon, or might’ve been the war that wiped out the Silurians or drove them off the earth. A website called Vedic Knowledge reported evidence “of an atomic blast dating back thousands of years. It destroyed most of the buildings and probably a half-million people in Rajasthan, India. One researcher estimates that the bomb used was about the size of the ones dropped on Japan in 1945.”

This ancient catastrophe, which some take as evidence of an ancient nuclear war, shows up in the Mahabharata, a Sanskrit epic, with the appearance of “a single projectile charged with all the power in the Universe … An incandescent column of smoke and flame as bright as 10,000 suns, rose in all its splendor … it was an unknown weapon, an iron thunderbolt, a gigantic messenger of death which reduced to ashes an entire race.”

It’s heartbreaking—the fact that, as we face the nightmare of climate change, some of us have read our own perilous present back into the geological past and have come to see even our apocalypse as unremarkable, something that’s been experienced before and was inevitable from the start. It’s thrilling, too, the idea of a pre-human industrial civilization. It means we don’t know anything: who we are, or where, or even the history of our own home.

(Source: The Paris Review)

Shudras, not Aryans, built the Indus Valley Civilisation

The word Harappa sounds similar to the names given to divine figures in south India. Mallappa, Beerappa, Veerappa, for example, writes Kancha Ilaiah Shepherd, political theorist and social activist, on Daily O. Read on: 

Archaeological evidence shows that the first city to be built across the world - Harappa - came up in the Indian subcontinent around 2850-2900 BC. The word Harappa sounds similar to the names given to divine figures in south India. Mallappa, Beerappa, Veerappa, for example.

In Kannada and Telugu speaking regions, names ending with "Appa" are very popular among the Shudra and Dalit communities. Names like Mallappa and Beerappa are now names given to godheads that cattle rearing and agrarian communities believe in.

Harappa, the city built on the banks of Indus, went to Pakistan post partition. Harappa represents the advancements made in the area of construction of houses, streets, tanks, canals and forts. This advancement had been achieved a full 1,500 years before Rig Veda was composed.

The Indological and archaeological studies also established that this civilisation was built by Indo-Africans before the Aryan race even showed any signs of its existence in the Indian subcontinent.

Contemporary Indian villages show that it is actually villages that lay the foundation for cities. All cities have villages around them.

The tradition in the Indian subcontinent is to name villages and cities after people. For instance, my village is named Papaiah Pet. People from the older generation told us that a fisherman named Papaiah and my grandmother Lingamma, whose family name was Kancha and who was the widow of a shepherd, built the first thatched houses which went on to take the form of a village in which fishermen/women, shepherds, toddy tappers settled down.

During the time of my parents, people started tilling the land in the village using buffaloes while they also continued with their traditional occupations. Over a period of time, a tribe named Lambada, whose main occupation was cattle rearing, also settled down in the village. By now, around 4,500 people had started living in the village. For the last 10-15 years, the village has been witnessing people migrate to urban areas.

Similarly, the city of Harappa could have actually been a village to begin with and Harappa could well have been the man after whom it was named. Building the city of Harappa would have been impossible without several villages surrounding it.

So, these villages would have existed in the region where the Indus Valley Civilisation was spread, well before the city of Harappa was built. Building a city is impossible unless there is an agrarian economy to sustain it.

For instance, my house that was built during my childhood, was constructed without too many tools being used. Wood from the village was used to build the thatched house. Over time, I saw how many in the village trained to become carpenters and the exercise of building houses became sophisticated. The same applied to how mud walls of our houses gradually came down and were replaced by pucca houses with brick kilns coming up in no time.

Studies of Harappa show that the urban civilisation back then was far more developed than the town of Narsampet from where I completed Class 10.

The Harappan city could have only been built under the socioeconomic conditions similar to the one that I saw in my village.

The civilisation that started taking shape in Harappa soon spread to the cities of Mohenjodaro and Dholavira. While this civilisation spread along the river Indus, no such civilisation developed around the Ganga. We don't know if even villages exited in the Ganga region when cities were coming up in the Indus region.

Why?

The answer to this question needs to be searched in what is known as Vedic economy. Vedic economy is actually pastoral economy. It involves animal husbandry: the care, tending and use of animals such as cattle, camels, goats, yaks, llamas, reindeers, horses and sheep.

This in essence means that the Vedic economy and social life turned more backward after the Harappan civilisation declined. Urbanisation suffered a huge setback.

Archaeological studies show that the Harappan civilisation was built by Indo-Africans, whose physical characteristics were more similar to south Indians, who are racially Dravidians (The Dravidian race is nothing but Indianised mixed race Indo-Africans).

The Vedic civilisation, culture and linguistic society were built by Indo-Aryans, who apparently migrated from Middle East (mainly from the present day Iran). This civilisation is said to have thrived during 1500 to 1100 BC.

Historically, this civilisation is also known as the one which followed the Harappan civilisation.

The earliest and most authentic evidence of the Indo-Aryan civilisation comes from the Rig Veda, the first Brahminic scripture of India. A scripture that has roots of the caste structure within it.

The scripture was written in Sanskrit, which even today continues to be hegemonised by Brahmins as temple priests. They alone read, recite and interpret all Sanskrit texts even in the 21st century.

No Shudra has the right to do it. Many are still denied the right to study in Hindu schools and colleges. They cannot be priests in Hindu temples in almost the entire country. No Shudra philosopher has emerged from the Brahmin-dominated Hindu society. The philosophers to have emerged have only been Brahmins or Kshatriyas.

After the Hindu fundamentalist outfit, Bharatiya Janata Party, came to power in 1999 and then in 2014, it started mass mobilisation of Shudras with the active involvement of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS).

But no Shudra was empowered enough to become a priest in a Hindu temple.

The BJP and RSS only reach out to Shudras for their votes, they are not interested in any real empowerment of the community.

The Shudras have their historical roots in the Harappan civilisation. It is well known that there was no Brahmin, Brahminism or Sanskrit during Harappan civilisation.

It is not known how the entire Indus Valley civilisation disappeared and how the whole civilisation was taken back to pastoralism by the early Aryans, which as I mentioned earlier failed to even build proper villages.

A Rig Veda hymn shows how the scripture does not invoke God, but invokes Agni.

In those times Agni could not have been seen as a source of energy used for cooking but could have been seen as the most powerful agent to harm the enemy by burning his/her resources - houses, cattle, crops, grain and other resources central to life. The other natural agent worshipped was Vayu (wind).

In Rig Veda, Vayu and Agni have been accorded greater prominence than Brahma or Indira.

When I was about three-four years old, a massive fire in my village destroyed most of the houses. The fire rose to scary heights fanned by the wind. Houses that were not in the direction of the wind, however, escaped harm.

Villagers then started abusing Devudu (god of fire) and Vayu Devudu (god of wind) because the fire not only gutted houses, but also claimed a few lives.

These, however, are among the forces of nature that have been eulogised in the Rig Veda.

It is thus not surprising that the people who venerated destructive forces, created the caste system condemning a whole group of people into a life of ignominy.

The greatness of the Rishi tradition in India

A Rishi is one who flows or is in tune with the rhythmic movement of the universe, writes Sampadananda Mishra, a Sanskrit scholar from Odisha who is the director of Sri Aurobindo Foundation for Indian Culture in Pondicherry, in Pragyata. Read on: 

Introduction

इदं नम ऋषिभ्यः पूर्वेभ्यः पूर्वजेभ्यः पथिक्र्द्भ्यः ||

|| idaṁ namaḥ ṛṣibhyaḥ pūrvajebhyaḥ pūrvebhyaḥ pathikṛdbhyaḥ || (Rigveda, 10.14.15)

“We offer our obeisance to the Rishis, born of old, the ancients, the path-makers.” 

India, indeed, is the land of the Rishis. Therefore, the culture of India is often called as the culture of the Rishis. The tradition of the Rishis in India seems to be perennially flowing, like a stream, to enrich the mind and imagination of her common people. So, in India, the Rishis are revered as supreme personalities. Living a true life was to be learnt from the Rishis.

A Rishi is the one through whom the secret words of the Vedas are revealed,1 the one who has the inner sight to see the Mantra. Therefore, the Rishis are known as the seers of the Mantra - ṛṣayah mantradraṣṭāraḥ.2 Sri Aurobindo says that a Rishi "sees or discovers an inner truth and puts it into self-effective language - the Mantra."3 He further elucidates that a Rishi is the seer. He has seen the Mantras (mantradraṣṭā). According to Sri Aurobindo,

"The Rishi was not the individual composer of the hymns but the seer (draṣṭā) of an eternal truth and an impersonal knowledge."4

He does not merely see, he also hears. He possesses a supernatural faculty of hearing. To his inner audience 'the divine word came vibrating out of the Infinite'. So he is called Kavi satyashruta, the hearer of Truth. He is the possessor of great spiritual and occult knowledge, the complete inner knowledge. The Rishis "were seers as well as sages, they were men of vision who saw things in their meditation in images, often symbolic images, which might precede an experience and put it in a concrete form." So it was possible for the Rishis "to see at once the inner experience and in image its symbolic happenings."5 In the words of Yaskacharya, ‚the Mantra came to the Rishis who were doing tapas, therefore they became Rishis, in that lies the Rishihood of the Rishis." tadenān tapasyamānān brahama svayamabhyanārṣat | tadṛṣayo'bhavan| tadṛṣināṁ ṛṣitvam| 6 Elsewhere he observes that the purport of the Mantras has to be reached by tapas alone'7, tasyāstapasā pāramīpsitavyam. Shaunaka supports Yaskacharya's viewpoint when he says in his Brhaddevata, "The Mantra is not perceptible to one who is not a Rishi" 8 na pratyaksamanṛṣḥiṇāmasti mantram. He further declares: 

"He knows the gods who knows the Riks. The Mantras to be approached through Yoga with self-control and skill, understanding, general knowledge and above all tapasya."9

Rishis are the possessors of great spiritual and occult knowledge, the complete inner knowledge. They are men of vision who during their meditation see images and put these in a concrete form. So it is possible for the Rishis to experience at the same time the inner Truth as well as see in image its symbolic happenings.

The Rishis, the seers of the Mantra devoted to a life of Spirit, discover a certain line of development beyond the range of sensory perception by means of their strength of self-discipline and achieve a many-sided inner progress.

 The word ‘Rishi’ comes from the root ‘Rish’ which in Sanskrit means, ‘to go’, ‘to move’ and ‘to flow’. Thus, a Rishi is the ‘one who flows or moves or is in tune with the rhythmic flow or movement of the universe’. He is one with the movement. He vibrates with the vibration of the movement. He knows the truth of the whole of the movement.  

A Rishi is also known as kavi, the poet; satyadraṣṭā, the seer of the truth; satyasrotā, the hearer of the truth; krāntadarṣī, of transcendental vision; mantradraṣṭā, the seer of the Mantra; krāntadarṣī, of transcendental vision; mantradraṣṭā, the seer of the Mantra. In India, Rishis have always been given the highest reverence. Their words always held an authority greater than those of kings and other leaders of the society. Throughout the ages India has thrown up a long line of seers and sages of various orders and there is hardly any period in her history where there have not been at least a few seers and sages.

In the words of Sri Aurobindo:

“Ours is the eternal land, the eternal people, the eternal religion, whose strength, greatness, holiness may be overclouded but never, even for a moment, utterly cease. The hero, the Rishi, the saint, are the natural fruits of our Indian soil; and there has been no age in which they have not been born… The Rishi is different from the saint. His life may not have been distinguished by superior holiness nor his character by an ideal beauty. He is not great by what he was himself but by what he has expressed. A great and vivifying message had to be given to a nation or to humanity; and God has chosen this mouth on which to shape the words of the message. A momentous vision had to be revealed; and it is his eyes which the Almighty first unseals. The message which he has received, the vision which has been vouchsafed to him, he declares to the world with all the strength that is in him, and in one supreme moment of inspiration expresses it in words which have merely to be uttered to stir men’s inmost natures, clarify their minds, seize their hearts and impel them to things which would have been impossible to them in their ordinary moments. Those words are the mantra which he was born to reveal and of that mantra he is the seer.” 10

In India, the Rishi was always, recognized, as it is even now, as the real teacher, the guru. He is all powerful to intervene between the seeker and the highest object of seeking. He knows right word of instruction and right mantra of initiation. He himself is the living example of the ideal that he places before the seeker. His power flows directly from within to the inmost being of the seeker.

The Rishis devoted maximum time of their life to self-study, to composition of various literary works, imparting knowledge to the disciples, propagating knowledge to the masses and doing tapas for the good of the world. The Rishi is the friend of all and does good to all. His message is oneness in which he lives all the times and he knows nothing of division. In the words of Sri Aurobindo,

"The seer, the freed & illuminated soul hates none, condemns nothing but loves all and helps all; he is sarvabhutahite ratah, his occupation & delight are to do good to all creatures. He is the Self seeing the Self in all, loving the Self in all, enjoying the Self in all, helping the Self in all. That is the ethics & morality of the Vedanta."11

Rishis of the Veda

The Rishis of the Veda were great mystics whose first concern was spiritual - not the spiritual as divorced from the temporal and the secular, but as both the high point and sustaining base of all that is in the universe.

According to Sri Aurobindo, the Rishis, the poet-seers of the Veda, were men ‚

"…with a great spiritual and occult knowledge not shared by ordinary human beings, men who handed down this knowledge and their powers by a secret initiation to their descendant and chosen disciples." 12

The contributions of the Rishis can be experienced/ observed through the verses of the four Vedas, of which the Rig Veda is considered the oldest. The Rigveda has ten mandalas or sections. Out of the ten sections, the first and the last were the contributions of various Rishis. From second to the ninth each section is the contribution of the Rishis of a particular family. In Rigveda the second Mandala is credited to the family of Bhrigu; the third Mandala is to the family of Vishvamitra; the fourth to the family of Gautama and the fifth to the family of Atri; while the sixth Mandala is by the family of Bharadvaja the seventh is accredited to the family of Vasishtha; the seers of the eighth Mandala belong to the family of Kanva and the ninth Mandala to the family of Angirasas. 

It must not be understood that all those who lived in the Vedic age were Rishis, or all the Rishis and common people of that time had attained an all round prosperity – spiritual and material. Rather it has to be understood thus: The Rishis, the seers of the Mantra, devoted to a life of Spirit, discovered a certain line of development beyond the range of sensory perception by means of their strength of self-discipline and achieved a many-sided inner progress. Whatever they achieved by their tapasya they then cast into a veiled language which they called ‘Mantra. 

Arunachala temple in Tiruvannamalai, courtesy Mat McDermott

Types of Rishis

These Rishis of Vedic period were of two types: those who perceived the Mantras directly by the power of their tapas and the others who were incapable of direct perception but had an intense aspiration to go deep into the Mantras perceived by the superior Rishis. The first kind of Rishis were called sākṣātkṛtadharmā and the second type of Rishis were called asākṣātkṛtadharmā.13 Later the sense of the term Rishi got expanded and we come across several types of Rishis mentioned in our Shastras: śrutarṣi, kāṇḍarṣi, taparṣi, satyarṣi, devarṣi, maharṣi, paramarṣi, brahmarṣi, rājarṣi, janarṣi etc.14 The role of the Rishis as seers is prominent in the Vedic literature, while their role as teachers is emphasized in the epics and Puranas. In the epics we find mention about various categories of these Rishis: the Rishis who were householders (gṛhāśtasramīs), Rishis who had no wives and children or never thought of women (ūrdhvaretās), Rishis who were hermit dwellers (āśramavāsins), Rishis who were continuous wanderers (yāyāvaras), Rishis engaged in priestly duties (purohitas), Rishis constantly engaged in imparting sacred knowledge to the disciples (śāstrādhyāpakas), Rishis engaged in imparting training in warfare (śastrādhyāpakas), Rishis who were constantly engaged in intense tapas (ugratapasvins) etc.

When we look at the lives of these Rishis we find that majority of the Rishis were householders. They lived in their hermitages with their families, chanted Vedic hymns, imparted sacred knowledge to the disciples, practiced tapas, performed daily rituals and other sacrifices. 

Rishikas or the Women Seers

In the Vedas as well as in the other Vedic scriptures we find mention about several women seers. These women seers or Rishikās were mostly the family members of the Rishis, either wives or daughters. In the Rigveda we find mention about twenty-one Rishikās. During the Vedic period the women were free to live the life of a brahmacharini or sannyasini. We find mention in our scriptures about Shrutavati, a daughter of Rishi Bhardwaj who remained a brahmacharini all her life and entered into deep study of the Vedas; Shrimati, a daughter of Shāndilya, who led a similar life; Sulabhā who was an authority on the Vedas and entered into Vedic arguments with King Janaka; and about many other women who were given entirely to the study of the Vedas.

The wives and daughters of the Rishis were not just Veda learners but many of them were seers of mantras. So, we see Lopāmudrā (Rigveda, 1:179), Romashā (Rigveda, 1:126:7), Aditi (Rigveda, 4:18:7), Nadyā (Rigveda, 3:33), Ghoshā (Rigveda, 10:39), Apālā (Rigveda, 8:91.1 to 7), Visvavārā (Rigveda, 5:28), Indrāni (Rigveda, 10: 86 and 145), Godhā (Rigveda, 10:134:6,7) and few others like Shraddhā, Maitreyi, Urvashi, Vāgambhrini and Gārgi.

We find in the Brihadaranyka Upanishad (Chapter 3, section 6) Gārgi questioning to Yajnyavalkya. This shows the Rishikās were actively participating in the various conferences on brahmavidyā. We see Maitreyi’s aspiration for attaining immortality. The kings and princes of the Vedic age preferred to marry the daughters of the Rishis in order to bring home the most illumined persons as their spouses. At the same time we see that many princesses, deeply interested to lead spiritual life, married to the Rishis and lived in the Ashrams. 

Conclusion

Since time immemorial, we see a long line of the tradition of Rishis in India. They ‚were creators, educators, guides of men and the life of the Indian people in ancient times was largely developed and directed by their shaping influence.‛15 It is important to note that there has always been a continuity of this tradition of Rishis and there has not been any time when the Rishis have not taken birth in this land. If India had a glorious past it was because of the seers and sages and saints of this land. Though engaged primarily in a tapasyä of knowledge and self-discipline, the Rishis always did good to the world. The following words of Swami Sivananda Saraswati, the founder of Divine Life Society, Rishikesh, which he wrote in the introduction to his book on the Lives of Saints of India, present the magnanimous nature of the seers, saints and sages of India:

“Saints and sages are a blessing to the world at large. They are the custodians of superior divine wisdom, spiritual powers and inexhaustible spiritual wealth… Their very existence inspires others and goads them to become like them and attain the same state of bliss achieved by them… Their glory is indescribable. Their wisdom is unfathomable. They are deep like the ocean, steady like the Himalayas, pure like the Himalayan snow, effulgent like the sun…To be in their company is the highest education. To love them is the highest happiness. To be near them is real education.”

But, instead of merely singing the glories of the past by remembering the names of the Rishis and worshipping them is not going to do any good to the humanity and its future. What is demanded of every human being is to rise above to attain to the state of Rishihood. In the words of Swami Vivekananda: He further says:

“In ancient times there were, no doubt, many Rishis and Maharshis who came face to face with Truth. But if this recalling of our ancient greatness is to be of real benefit, we too must become Rishis like them. And, not only that, but it is my firm conviction that we shall be even greater Rishis than any that our history presents to us.”16

References / Footnotes

1. tathaivaà vedänåñayastapasä pratipedire (Mahabharata, Shantiparva 155.2)

2. See Nirukta of Yaskacharya Naigamakanda, 2.11

3. The Future Poetry, SABCL, Vol. 9, P. 517

4. The Secret of the Veda, SABCL, Vol. 10, P. 8

5. The Hymns to the Mystic Fire, Vol. 11, P. 12

6. Nirukta of Yaska 2.11

7. Nirukta of Yaska 13.13

8. Brihaddevata of Shaunaka 8.129

9. Brihaddevata of Shaunaka 8.130 yogena däkñyeëa damena buddhyä bähuçrutyena tapasä niyogaiù| upäsyästäù kåtsnaço devatäyä åco ha yo veda sa veda devän |

10. Sri Aurobindo, CWSA, vol.1, pg. 637)

11. Sri Aurobindo, CWSA vol.17, pg 411

12. Sri Aurobindo, CWSA vol.16, pp 6-7

13. Nirukta of Yaskacharya, 1.20

14. Those who received the Mantras from their teachers were called çrutarñis. Those who were experts in different sections of the Vedas were called käëòarñis. Those who performed severe penances were called taparñis. Those who were given to truth and were truthful learners were called satyarñis. Those who were in communion with the Gods were called devarñis. Those who enjoyed a great and exalted position among the Rishis because of their contributions were called maharñis or paramarñis. Those who realized the Brahman, lived the truth of the Brahman and ultimately became the Brahman were called brahmarñis. Those who had attained the Rishihood and at the same time ruled the kingdoms as kings were known as räjarñis. A common man possessing the qualities of a Rishi was called janarñi. (Baudhayana Dharmasutra, 2.9.14)

15. Sri Aurobindo, CWSA Volume 13, pg 525

16. Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Volume 3, pg 371

All you need to know about Bhagavad Gita

The day on which the Bhagavad Gita was revealed is celebrated as the Gita Jayanti festival. Vishal Agarwal looks into some interesting aspects of Bhagavad Gita, on Indiafacts. Read on: 

Gita Jayanti or the anniversary of the day on which the Bhagavad Gita was revealed is celebrated as the Gita Jayanti festival. This day is the 11th day of the waxing moon of the Mārgashīrṣha month of the Hindu calendar, and falls in the months of November-December of the Gregorian calendar. On this day, Hindus worship Krishna, perform Pujas, sing the Gita ārati, chant the entire Gita, or even perform a Yajna while chanting each verse of the Gita collectively.

Let us now look into some interesting aspects of Bhagavad Gita.

1. What does the name ‘Bhagavad Gita’ mean?
The title of this beloved Hindu scripture literally means “The Divine Song” or the “The Song of the Lord”. This holy book of Hindus presents an eternally relevant dialogue between a human representative (Arjuna) and the Supreme Being (as Krishna). The Bhagavad Gita is often referred to simply as the ‘Gita’ in short. Many other Gitas exist in the Hindu scriptural tradition, but when the word ‘Gita’ is used, it denotes our Bhagavad Gita, because of its pre-eminence over all the other Gita named scriptures.

The Gita is not a one sided monologue. In the Gita, Arjuna expresses many doubts, asks many questions, and Krishna does not force him to accept the answers that he gives to Arjuna. He merely asks Arjuna to think about the answers, and then act as he wishes, if they make sense to him.

Arjuna does not ask these questions just out of curiosity, or with arrogance or just to humor Krishna. He asks them because he is faced with a very difficult situation in his life, and he wants to know how he can take the right decision. He asks these questions with a lot of humility, love and with a genuine desire to know the truth.

Krishna answers all the questions of Arjuna. He does not put down Arjuna anytime. He talks to Arjuna as a loving and an understanding friend. He gives Arjuna not just ‘one right answer’. Instead, He offers Arjuna many different possible solutions with their pros and cons, but also says what his own preference is. Eventually, Arjuna agrees to Krishna’s preferred solution and wins the war of Dharma against Adharma.

Because of message of the Gita is relevant for all humanity in all times, Krishna is considered the teacher par excellence, and is termed as ‘Jagadguru’ or ‘Teacher of the World.’

Everyone can draw some good teaching from the Gita, whether we are believers or atheists, whether we are Hindus or non-Hindus, intelligent or stupid, rich or poor, man or woman. Its teachings can help you whether you are happy or sad, in need or not in need, in a desert or in a rain forest, in a crowd or alone, whether you are praised by others or hated, and whether you love others or hate them.

The Gita teaches us how to transform from an average human being to an extra-ordinary human being, and then become Divine. The Gita tells about the true nature of this Universe. It teaches us something even more important – and that is, who WE are. It teaches us about our relationship to Bhagavān and to the Universe. How we should live our daily lives, the correct attitude, and what is really important and what is not important in life.

2. Importance of the Bhagavad Gita in Hinduism:
The Bhagavad Gita has been considered one of the most important scriptures of Hindus for over 2000 years. The scripture is almost universally regarded by Hindus as the epitome of all the spiritual teachings of the Vedas and the Upanishads and is read by millions of Hindus for inspiration and solace to this day. Many Hindus memorize all of its 700 verses, or at least selected chapters and verses to draw upon their teachings and to teach others. Many Hindus believe that if you study and understand the Gita, then there is not much need to read the hundreds of other scriptures that we have.

The importance of the Bhagavad Gita is indicated in the Hindu tradition by several popular verses, one of which says that whosoever seeks recourse to Gita, Ganga, Gāyatrī and Govinda – the 4 Gs, is freed of the cycle of birth and death. Another verse states that all the Upanishads are cows, and Lord Krishna is the milkman who has extracted their teaching in the form of the milk of Bhagavad Gita.

3. Gita as a part of the Mahābhārata
The Mahabharata is the longest poem in the world and has approximately 100,000 verses. The Bhagavad Gita is a part of this much larger scripture – the Mahabharata. It forms chapters 23-40 in the Bhishma Parvan, which is the 6th of the 18 books of the Mahabharata. The Gita has 700 verses in the standard version. In fact, the Gita is located right at the center of the 100,000 verses of the Mahabharata, and is literally the heart of the Mahabharata.

The Mahabharata is a giant epic that describes the events leading to the great civil war in the Indian subcontinent. There were two sets of royal cousins – the righteous five Pāṇdavas and the unrighteous hundred Kauravas. Yudhishthira, the eldest Pāṇdava prince, should have inherited the kingdom of Hastinapura, which is around 50 miles east of Delhi. But his blind Uncle Dhritarashtra (the father of Kauravas), with his eldest evil and arrogant son Duryodhana wanted to rule instead. To prevent a conflict, the kingdom was divided into two parts. The original capital and eastern half was given to Duryodhana to rule. The western barren half around Delhi was named Indraprastha and was given to the Pāṇdavas to rule.

By dint of their hard work and under the guidance of Krishna, the Pāṇdavas became very prosperous and powerful. The jealous Duryodhana could not tolerate the happiness of Pāṇdavas. Through trickery, Duryodhana banished the Pāṇdavas into 13 years of exile and usurped their half of the kingdom as well. But when the Pāṇdavas came back to reclaim their kingdom after 13 years as per the original agreement, Duryodhana told Krishna that “I will not give even as much land to the Pāṇdavas as can stay on the tip of a needle.” Earlier, Duryodhana had even tried to kill the Pāṇdavas through several foul means.

The Pāṇdavas, encouraged by their mother Kunti and by Krishna, decided to fight the unrighteous Kauravas, who were led by Duryodhana. As preparations for the war began, all the kings and princes of the Indian subcontinent started joining one or the other of the two parties – that of the Pāṇdavas and the Kauravas. Bhagavān Krishna sided with the Pāṇdavas at the request of Arjuna, but the entire army of Krishna was handed over to Duryodhana upon latter’s request.

Almost 4 million soldiers gathered at the battlefield of Kurukshetra which is north of Delhi. When the two armies faced each other and before the fighting began, Arjuna asked Krishna to take him to a spot between the two armies. He wanted to see whom he will be fighting. When he saw that his cousins, dear Uncles, teachers and even some friends were in the opposite camp, he was suddenly filled with a mixture of guilt, fear, compassion and doubt. He asked Krishna as to how he can fight his own loved ones even though they were unrighteous, and had tried to kill him and his brothers in the past. Arjuna said that it would be perhaps better to just give everything to Duryodhana and retire to a forest as an ascetic. Torn between the desire to fight for justice, and just become an ascetic, he asked Krishna as to what would be the correct thing to do. This is when Bhagavān Krishna revealed to him the beautiful scripture of Bhagavad Gita.

Did You Know?
The civil war of Mahābhārata killed millions of people in Bhārata. Almost 2000 years later, in the early 7th century CE, a Chinese traveler named Hieun Tsang visited India. The Hindus showed him the site of the war, and the traveler recorded in his diary that he could still see bones scattered over the plain.

In Kurukshetra, there is a banyan tree that is said to mark the spot where the Gita is revealed. It is said that Krishna and Arjuna stood next to the tree, which became immortal by hearing the Divine words. Due to this, it has survived even today. Close to the tree is a pond called ‘Jyotisar’ (the pond of light). Hindus go even today on a pilgrimage to Jyotisar and to the holy tree.

4. Why was the Bhagavad Gita revealed on a battlefield? Why Krishna advises Arjuna to fight and not make peace? Is it a War-Mongering Book?
There is a very practical reason why the Gita was revealed in a battlefield. It is very easy to preach and sermonize while we are sitting on a couch in a million dollar mansion. But real life is much more difficult. In fact, the most difficult and stressful situation that we can come across is in a war, where we are not sure whether we will survive or not, and when we have to fight against someone whom we have loved. The fact that Krishna’s teaching worked and enlightened Arjuna to take the right decision means that the Gita should work for us in our less stressful, and easier real life situations as well. What is the use of revealing a scripture in a comfortable situation, which has no relationship to the challenges that we can face in our day to day lives?

Krishna and Pāṇdavas did try to stop the war and asked for just 5 villages. But Duryodhana went back on his word. In fact, he tried to imprison Krishna! Duryodhana also tried to kill the Pāṇdavas many times through foul means. The message of the war of Mahabharata is that sometimes war is in fact a necessary evil. Just for the sake of peace, we should not stop fighting for our rights because the evil and unrighteous people will not let us live and prosper even if we try to ignore them. As an example, the world tried to ignore Hitler till he started threatening all the countries around Germany. And then, the world had no choice but to fight and defeat him.

The Gita is not a war-mongering book. In fact, Krishna tells Arjuna that he should not fight a war for selfish reasons. Instead, he should fight a war only so for a higher purpose, and for justice. When we fight wars and compete against others for selfish reasons, we also have to reap the fruit of the paapam involved in wars and competition. But when we fight and compete for a higher purpose in life in a detached manner, then it results in the purification of mind and Bhagavān grants us Moksha.

5. Arjuna as the Student of God
In many ways, Arjuna was an Average-Joe, like all of us. He had some bad habits, and some good habits. But he had a very good heart. Most people would not have the moral hesitation to fight a war or compete for their rights even if that means causing pain to others. But Arjuna was a very sensitive person. Krishna realized that Arjuna would be an ideal person to reveal the Gita. Thanks to Arjuna, and thanks to Veda Vyasa, who recorded it, we received the teachings of Bhagavad Gita from God.

Arjuna was an ideal student for many reasons:

• Arjuna chose God above worldly power and riches: Before the war, Arjuna as well as Duryodhana went to Krishna to get Him on their side. Krishna announced that He will not lift any weapon and will not fight. But still, the two could choose between Him and his mighty army. Duryodhana immediately asked for the army of Krishna. But Arjuna said – “My Lord, it has been my desire that I should make you my charioteer. I do not need any army.” So, Arjuna chose Bhagavān to guide him as his charioteer and did not care for the mighty army. Most of us foolishly choose worldly attractions over Bhagavān. Life is all about choices. More often than not, we behave like Duryodhana and think that our success lies in choosing wealth, power and popularity even at the expense of compromising with honesty and justice. But those of us who are like Arjuna will always chose Dharma over all these worldly temptations. The war that Arjuna fought resulted in a victory for his side even though his army was much smaller than Duryodhana’s. In the battle of life too, the genuinely truthful, honest, loving, and compassionate achieve great success (in the next life if not now) than those who just care for power, money and fame.
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• Arjuna was as persistent and hard working. Once, all the Pāṇdava and Kauravas complained that their Guru favored Arjuna too much. Drona decided to test all of them. He sent Arjuna for an errand. As soon as he left, Drona started teaching the other princes how to take aim at the exact leaf and shoot it successfully with an arrow and bow. Then, all of them left that site even before Arjuna returned. When Arjuna returned to that spot, he found a lot of split leaves and immediately realized that he must have missed that important lesson. So in his free time, he started target practicing using the leaves as his target. In this way, Arjuna soon made up for the missed lesson. When the princes learned how Arjuna worked hard to make up for the missed lesson, they realized why their teacher used to treat Arjuna as his favorite student.
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• Arjuna was very attentive and focused: Once, Guru Drona asked all the Kauravas and Pāṇdavas to shoot the eye of a mock bird on a tree with a bow and arrow. He asked them as to what they could see while taking aim. Everyone said – “I can see the trees, you, the leaves and the bird.” But Arjuna said – “Guru-ji. I can see only the eye of the bird.” Not surprisingly, Arjuna turned out to be the best archer.
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• Not addicted to Eating or to Sleeping: Once while Bheema, the glutton brother, was eating, the lamp blew out and it became dark. Bheema was of course still able to eat. So Arjuna thought – “If Bheema can eat in the dark, should I not be able to aim and hit my target in the dark, if the target makes a sound?” He immediately stopped eating and started practicing archery skills in the dark. But this was a difficult skill to master. So Arjuna even cut on his sleep time to practice even more. In the course of time, Arjuna learned to shoot in the dark by following the sound of his target! In fact, one of Arjuna’s names was ‘Gudākesha’, which has several meanings, one of which is “He who has mastered sleep.”
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• Arjuna was willing to leave his family for learning: When the Pāṇdavas had to live several years in the forest due to Duryodhana’s trickery, Arjuna decided to use his time constructively and learn some new skills, and the science and art of using more advanced weapons. So he left his family for a year to go to learn weaponry from Bhagavān Shiva after an arduous journey away from his family.
• 
  
• Arjuna was very humble, sincere and was willing to acknowledge his faults and learn from them. In fact, Arjuna confessed to Krishna, “Overcome by faint-heartedness, confused about my duty (Dharma), I ask you: Please tell me that which is truly better for me. I am your student. Please teach me, who has taken refuge in you.” Gita 2.7
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• Arjuna was very respectful to his teacher and followed his instructions. Drona had been humiliated by King Drupada. When the princes ended their education, Drona asked for a tuition fee – capturing Drupada alive and bringing him to Drona. Arjuna followed his Guru’s request and did what his Guru wanted, risking his own life.

6. Dating of the Bhagavad Gita
The Gita was revealed on the first day of the 18 day long Mahābhārata war at Kurukshetra. There is a lot of controversy as to when the war happened. From a traditional Hindu perspective, the dating of Bhagavad Gita does not matter because unlike Abrahamic religions (Islam, Christianity and Judaism) that are based on historical events, Hindu Dharma is based on eternal principles. These principles are not dependent on any historical connection and can be discovered by anyone at any time, they can be experienced by any one or revealed again to any person any time in human history. Yet, some dates have been suggested by the Hindu tradition as well as by modern scholars. They are:

• 32nd BCE.
• 24th BCE
• 15th BCE
• 10th BCE

However, as some scholars argue, this does not mean that the Gita in its current state was finalized right around the war. The Mahābhārata itself was written and expanded after the war. Scholars disagree as to whether the Gita was included originally in the Mahābhārata or whether it was added on later. Or whether the Gita was a shorter scripture in the beginning and then expanded to the current form. Scholars have again proposed several different dates for when the Gita was written down in its present form. These dates vary from 32nd Cent BCE to 2nd cent CE!

For our purposes, we will assume that the Gita was revealed around 15th cent. BCE because archaeologists have dated the remains of Dwārakā (the capital of Krishna) to around that time. In reality, all these discussions are futile and we cannot fix the date of Gita with the given lack of evidence. Nor can we prove decisively whether the Gita was a shorter book that was expanded later. All these debates simply do not matter to someone who merely wants to understand the overall message of the Gita. Therefore, we shall just assume, for convenience, that the Gita was completed in its present form (with very few if any changes) shortly after the Mahābhārata War.

Some factors that lead the present author towards this conclusion regarding the date of the Gita are:

• A Buddhist manuscript dated to 150 AD (‘Spitzer manuscript’) from Turfan (Sinkiang, China) says that the Buddha (6th BCE) had studied the Mahabharata.
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• Panini in Pakistan (6th BCE) mentions Krishna as the teacher of Arjuna.
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• Krishna and other characters of the Mahabharata are mentioned in much more ancient scriptures of Hindus and Buddhists like the Jatakas, Chhandogya Upanishad and Nirukta.
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• Quotations from the Gita are found in ancient scriptures like Nirukta (chapter 14) and Baudhayana Grihya Parishesha Sutra.

7. Translations and Explanations of the Gita
The Gita is the second most translated scripture in the world, after the Bible. There are more than 700 commentaries and translations of the Bhagavad Gita. There are more than 225 commentaries on the Gita in Sanskrit alone.

The oldest surviving translation of the Gita is in Javanese, an Indonesian language. This translation covers less than 100 verses and is more than 1000 years old. Alberuni too wrote an Arabic translation of portions of the Gita in the 11th cent. CE.

Literally dozens of Hindu scholars and saints wrote their own commentaries and explanations on the Bhagavad Gita in the last 1500 years or more. Most of them are in Sanskrit. The oldest commentary that survives is that of Adi Shankaracharya (~700 AD) and tries to show that the scripture teaches the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta. However, it is clear from this commentary that there existed several ancient commentaries on the Gita but none of these have survived today.

Shankaracharya is closely followed in time by Bhatta Bhaskara, who interprets the Gita according to the school of Bhedābheda Vedanta. Other prominent Sanskrit commentaries on the Gita are by Ramanujacharya (following Vishishtadvaita Vedanta), Madhvacharya (following Dvaita Vedanta), Vedanta Deshika (super-commentary on Ramanujacharya’s commentary), Shridhara Swami (following Advaita Vedanta with a strong flavor of Bhakti) and Madhusudana Saraswati (Advaita Vedanta with a strong flavor of Bhakti).

Around the beginning of the 13th cent. AD, Sant Jnaneshvara of Maharashtra wrote a beautiful verse commentary on the Gita in an olden form of the Marathi language. In our own times, Mahatma Gandhi wrote an explanation on the Gita. The longest commentary on the Gita is perhaps the one in Marathi by Vāmana Pandit (~17th cent.) and it has approximately 70,000 verses.

Literally hundreds of translations and beautiful commentaries on the Gita in English, Hindi and many other languages have appeared since 1750 AD. Because of its importance in Hinduism, every important Hindu thinker and philosopher feels the need to write a commentary on this scripture from his or her own perspective, or as a self-study exercise.

The two largest publishers and distributors of the Bhagavad Gita in the world are: ISKCON (International Society for Krishna Consciousness) founded by Srila Prabhupāda Bhaktivedānta; and the Geeta Press of Gorakhpur (India). Just as many hotel rooms in the United States has a copy of the Bible, there is an ongoing effort by ISKCON to place copies of the Gita in hotel rooms as well.

8. The Other Gitas of Bhagavān Krishna
There are more than 30 Hindu scriptures titled as ‘Gita’. But of these, only five are attributed to Krishna:

The Bhagavad Gita (“Song of the Lord”) in the Mahābhārata, Book VI (Bheeshma Parva) in 18 chapters.

The Kāma Gita (“The Gita of Desire”) in the Mahābhārata, Book XIV (Āshvamedhika Parva) in 3 chapters, revealed to Emperor Yudhishthira. It teaches us that it is not sufficient to win the battles of this world. More important and difficult is winning the battle in our mind between evil and good, and between sorrow and cheerfulness. Through a story, it emphasizes that we can win external battles only if we win the war of minds (ours as well as those of others). This short Gita can be considered as an elaboration of Bhagavad Gita’s verses 1.1 to 2.11.

The Anu Gita (“The Follow Up Gita”) in the Mahābhārata, Book XIV (Āshvamedhika Parva) in 36 chapters, revealed to Arjuna. This Gita has more than 1000 verses, and comprises of several short dialogues and stories that Krishna recollects for the sake of Arjuna after the war is over, at the latter’s request. The Anu Gita elaborates much more on themes that are ignored or are covered in lesser detail in the Bhagavad Gita, like the path and philosophy of meditation (Dhyāna Yoga), the wisdom of Sāmkhya (Jnāna), the duties of different stages of our life etc. However, Krishna does say to Arjuna in the beginning of Anu Gita that the Bhagavad Gita in itself is sufficient to take us to Brahman (the Supreme Being).

The Uddhava Gita (“Gita revealed to Uddhava”) is a much later scripture that is a part of Bhāgavata Purāṇa, Book XI. It was revealed by Krishna just before he was leaving the earth finally to return to the abode of Vishnu, to his friend and cousin Uddhava. This Gita explains Yoga, Bhakti, ethical principles, characteristics of a Sādhu, vegetarianism, etc., in great elaboration. Moreover, it also emphasizes that we should try to see the commonalities between different viewpoints expressed in the Vedic tradition, because Rishis often say the same thing in different ways. It has more than 1000 verses in 24 chapters. Another name of this scripture is the Hamsa Gita (“Song of the Swan”) because the swan symbolically stands for purity, and the ability to distinguish between the good and the bad. And it is literally the ‘Swan Song’ (last discourse) of Krishna.

The Uttara Gita (“The Latter Gita”) in three chapters contains a lot of details on various Yogic disciplines and also emphasizes that the caste of a person depends not on his birth but on his character. This Gita has a commentary on it by Gaudapādāchārya, who was the Guru of the Guru of Shankaracharya. Some scholars consider this Gita as well as the commentary to be spurious because it is not quoted by any Hindu scholar in the past. This Gita claims to belong to the Mahabharata. But so far, no manuscript of the Mahabharata is seen to contain it. Therefore, it is unclear as to who wrote it but regardless, it seems to be an ancient work.

If we want to read only one of the above Gitas, it should be the Bhagavad Gita. If a second one, then perhaps the Uddhava Gita. And thereafter, the Anu Gita and the Kāma Gita (which is quite short), and finally the Uttara Gita, to understand the philosophy of Krishna. Collectively, they are approximately 3000 verses. However, as emphasized in the Anu Gita itself, the Bhagavad Gita is itself sufficient to take us to Brahman.

9. The Different Versions of the Bhagavad Gita:
The standard text of the Bhagavad Gita has exactly 700 verses. This is the text that was used by Shankaracharya for his commentary in the 7th CE, and his is the oldest commentary available today.
Several manuscripts add a single verse by Arjuna at the beginning of chapter 13, bring the number to 701.

Then, manuscripts found in Kashmir have an additional 15 or so verses and half verses, that are also included in the commentaries of Kashmirian scholars like Abhinavagupta (950 – 1020 CE) or even earlier in the commentary of Bhaskara (7th – 8th?). However, these extra verses do not really add anything new to the teachings of the Gita.

The exact wording of the verses of the Gita also varies a bit here and there in different manuscripts. This is in fact true for all ancient scriptures of the world (except for the Vedas). But again, these textual variations do not really amount to much and are not significant in any way.

A modern version (from 20th published from Gondal in Gujarat) claims to have 745 verses. Its authenticity has been challenged. And again, these 45 extra verses do not add anything new to the message of the Gita.

Another modern version (again, from the 20th, published by the Suddha Dharma Mandala) has another version in 745 verses, and unlike all the other versions, it divides the scripture into 26 instead of into 18 chapters. This text is not accepted by any scholar as being genuine.

Therefore, for our purposes, we will largely stick to the text of 700 verses that was followed by Shankaracharya. In the standard version of 700 verses, 574 are spoken by Lord Krishna, 84 by Arjuna, 41 by Sanjaya and 1 by King Dhritarashtra. Most scholars prefer to follow this text.

The Gita has 18 chapters which have different titles. However, different commentators and different manuscripts either sometimes omit these titles or give different titles for the same chapter. This is taken to mean that the addition of titles to these chapters took place at a later time, and that the chapters did not have names originally. Moreover, these titles often do not necessarily reflect the actual contents of these chapters faithfully.

There are two types of meters in the Gita: The Anushtubh (642 verses) and the Trishtubh (58 verses).

10. The Bhagavad Gita and the Number ‘18’
The Gita is a part of the Mahābhārata that has 18 books. The Gita too has 18 chapters.

The Gita was recited at the beginning of a war that lasted 18 days.

In chapter 1 of the Gita, Sanjaya enumerates exactly 18 warriors in the side of the Pāṇdavas, who won the war.

In Hindu Dharma, there are 18 major Smritis (codes of Dharma); 18 major Purāṇas (narratives about Devas), 18 minor Purāṇas (ibid.).

Why is the number 18 found so frequently in Hindu Dharma?
It is the ‘numerical value’ of ‘Jai’ or victory of Dharma over Adharma.

The number ‘1’ denotes Bhagavān, and ‘8’ denotes the 8 root materials (Prakritis) from the Hindu tradition from which this Universe is made.

There are several other reasons why ‘18’ and ‘108’, ‘1008’ are holy in Hindu Dharma but a detailed discussion of the same is beyond the present scope.

11. The Bhagavad Gita: A Summary
 Arjuna said to Lord Krishna:

Overcome by faint-heartedness (a sinking feeling), confused about my duty (Dharma), I ask you: Please tell me that which is truly better for me. I am your student. Please teach me, who has taken refuge in you. Gita 2.7

The Blessed Lord Krishna replied:

[BRAHMAN IS THE SUPREME BEING]

I am the final Destination (Goal), the Provider, the Master of all, the Witness of everything, the Abode (in which the whole universe resides), worth seeking shelter of, and the Friend of all. And I am the origin and the Dissolution, the Foundation of everything, the Resting Place and the immortal cause of everything. Gita 9.18

[OUR TRUE NATURE IS DIVINE]

An eternal portion of My own Self becomes the soul of creatures in the world of living things. It attracts the five senses and the mind as the sixth (which lords over these senses) – all these six are comprised of non-living matter. Gita 15.7

[SEE THE DIVINE IN ALL CREATURES]

The wise see the same (Brahman) with an equal eye, in a learned and humble brāhmaṇa, in a cow, in an elephant, in a dog, and even in a dog eater (outcast). Gita 5.18

[WE ARE THE ETERNAL ATMA, NOT THIS PERISHABLE BODY]

The soul is never born and it does not ever die. The soul is not something that exists at one time and then vanishes the next. The soul is not something that did not exist at one time and then took birth and came into being subsequently. It is unchanging, eternal and primeval and it is not destroyed when the body is destroyed. Gita 2.20

Weapons cannot cleave the soul, fire cannot burn it. Water does not wet (or drown) it not does wind dry it. Gita 2.23

[DOCTRINE OF REBIRTH – WE NEVER DIE]

Just as a human casts off worn out clothing and puts on new, the soul too casts off old bodies and enters into new ones. Gita 2.22

Just as the soul dwelling in the body passes through childhood, youth and old age; in a similar manner, it travels from one body to another. Therefore, the wise do not get deluded over these changes. Gita 2.13

When the soul enters a body, it becomes the master of that body. And when it leaves the body (at death), it takes the mind and senses along with it, just as the wind takes fragrances from their sources (the flowers). Gita 15.8

[BHAGAVAN IS IMPARTIAL]

All beings are equal in my eyes. There is none especially hateful to me, nor one who is especially dear to me. But all those who worship me with devotion are in Me, and so am I in them. Gita 9.29

[THERE IS HOPE FOR EVERYONE]

Even if a person of the vilest conduct starts worshipping me with single-minded devotion, he too must be counted amongst the good, because he has resolved well. Gita 9.30

[GOD SAVES ANYONE WHO APPROACHES HIM]

Whosoever takes refuge in me, even if they are lowly born (due to the sins of their previous lives), and be they women, or Vaishyas or Shudras – they will all attain the Highest Goal. Gita 9.32

[TRUE DEVOTION IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN EXTERNALS]

Whosoever offers to Me with devotion a leaf, a flower, a fruit or even water – that offering of love, of the pure of heart I accept eagerly. Gita 9.26

[MANY WAYS TO REACH GOD – FREEDOM OF WORSHIP]

In whatsoever way men approach Me, even so do I bless them. For whichever path that men make take in worship, they will all come to Me. Gita 4.11

[WHO IS ESPECIALLY DEAR TO BHAGAVAN?]

In My view, that Yogi is the best who puts himself in the place of others at all times, and seeing his own identity with them, he is able to experience their pain and pleasure. Gita 6.32

He who has no hatred for any living being, who is friendly and also compassionate instead, who is free of the feeling of ‘I’ and ‘mine’, even minded in pleasure and pain and ever forgiving and forbearing. Gita 12.13

He who is alike to enemy and friend, also to good or bad reputation; He who is the same in pleasure or pain, in heat or cold and who is free from all attachments. Gita 12.18

He who considers insult and praise alike, who is silent (restrained in speech), content with whatever comes his way (through his own effort), has no abode (i.e., is not tied to home or family) and is firm in mind and full of devotion – that man is extremely dear to me. Gita 12.19

[LIVING ETHICALLY AND SPIRITUALLY]

Absence of fear, purity of mind, steadfastness in the path of meditation, Charity, control over one’s sense organs, performance of Vedic sacrifices, study of Holy Scriptures, austerity and straightforwardness… Gita 16.1

Ahimsa, truthfulness, absence of anger, renunciation, peacefulness, absence of backbiting or crookedness, compassion towards all creatures, absence of covetousness, gentleness, modesty (decency), absence of fickleness (or immaturity)…. Gita 16.2

Vigor and energy, forgiveness, fortitude, cleanliness, absence of hatred and no exaggerated self-opinion – These belong to the One who is born to achieve Divine Wealth, O Bhārata. Gita 16.3

Ostentation, arrogance, excessive pride and a tendency to demand respect, anger, harshness and indeed ignorance – these are the endowments of him who is born with the demoniac wealth. Gita 16.4

[LAW OF KARMA, FREEDOM IS OUR TRUE DESTINY]

Divine wealth leads to Freedom, whereas the demoniac wealth results in bondage. Do not grieve, because you are born naturally with the divine wealth (and therefore destined for freedom). Gita 16.5

[CONTROL YOUR WANTS TO ATTAIN PEACE AND HAPPINESS]

He attains peace into whom all desires enter as waters enters the ocean, which filled from all sides, remains unmoved; but not to him who wants to have (more and more) desires. Gita 2.70

[PRACTICE MODERATION IN ALL THINGS]

Meditation (Yoga) becomes the destroyer of sorrow for him whose food (eating habits) and recreation are temperate, whose efforts and activities are controlled, and whose sleep and waking are regulated. Gita 6.17

[ENGAGE WITH GOOD, DISENGAGE FROM EVIL]

Arjuna, without doubt, the mind is difficult to discipline because it is restless. But it can be restrained through constant engagement in good things (abhyāsa) and constant detachment from bad things (vairāgya). Gita 6.35

[SCRIPTURAL TEACHINGS SHOULD BE OUR GUIDE IN OUR ACTIONS]

Let scripture be the means by which you determine what should be done and what should not be done. After knowing the commands of the scripture, it is your obligation to perform your duties while you live in this world. Gita 16.24

[GOD SETS AN EXAMPLE THROUGH DIVINE INCARNATIONS]

Whenever there is a decline of Dharma and ascendancy of Adharma, I bring Myself into being, i.e., I assume a physical body. Gita 4.7

To protect the virtuous, destroy the evil doers and to re-establish the rule of Dharma, I come into being in every age. Gita 4.8

[WE TOO SHOULD SET AN EXAMPLE FOR OTHERS]

Whatsoever a great man does, the same is done by others. Whatever standard he sets, the world follows. Gita 3.21

[DO YOUR DUTY WITH A HIGHER PURPOSE]

The unlearned performs their duties from attachment to their work. Therefore, the wise and learned too should perform their duties, but without any attachment and only with the desire to promote harmony and welfare in the world. Gita 3.25

[BE STRONG, BELIEVE IN SELF-HELP]

Let a man lift himself by himself; because we alone are our own friend and we are also our own enemy. Gita 6.5

[DO YOUR DUTY SELFLESSLY, WITHOUT EXPECTING REWARDS]

You have control over doing your duty alone, and never on the fruit of your actions. Therefore, do not live or do your duty that is merely motivated by fruits of your actions. And do not let yourself get drawn into the path of non-action. Gita 2.47

[TAKE PRIDE IN WHATEVER YOU DO]

One should not give up the work suited to one’s nature, though it may be defective, for all enterprises are clouded by defects, just as fire is covered with smoke. Gita 18.48

[ALL WORK IS IMPORTANT]

One’s duty, even if devoid of merit, is better than the duty of another, well done. Doing action ordained by one’s own nature, one does not incur any sin. Gita 18.47

[CORRECT MENTAL ATTITUDE IN DOING OUR DUTY]

Steadfast in Yoga, and abandoning attachments, perform your actions and duties. Face all accomplishments and failures with an even mind, because yoga means evenness of mind. Gita 2.48

[WHEN WORK BECOMES WORSHIP]

(For a person who is immersed in spirituality) The act of offering is Brahman. The offering itself is Brahman. By Brahman is it offered into the fire, which is Brahman too. He who realizes Brahman while performing all actions, indeed reaches Brahman. Gita 4.24

[WE ARE INSTRUMENTS OF GOD]

The Lord resides in the hearts of all beings, causing them to revolve (i.e., go about their tasks) through his Māyā as if they were mounted on a machine. Gita 18.61

[GOD’S PROMISE TO US]

Abandoning completely all duties (i.e., dedicating them to Me), seek refuge in Me alone. I will liberate you from all evil, therefore do not grieve. Gita 18.66

[SPREAD THE GOOD WORD]

He who teaches this most exalted and supreme secret – this scripture (Gita) to My devotees, while having the highest devotion to Me, will come to Me alone – let there be no doubt about this. Gita 18.68

Arjuna said:

O Lord! You are Imperishable, the Supreme Being that we should seek to know. You are the ultimate shelter of the entire universe. You are the relentless protector of eternal Dharma. I believe that You are that Being Who has existed since eternity. Gita 11.18

By Your grace, my delusion is gone; and I have gained recognition of who I am and what is my duty. I now stand firm with my doubts dispelled and will do as You say. Gita 18.73